“Who the hell is she…..a whore?”[1]

Are women in action movies represented as empowered female role models or as sex objects? With Particular reference to “Wanted” (2008).

Females in action movies are being represented as independent, tough and empowered women in control, however only to an extent. Although women are shown to be active within society in action movies, they are still being portrayed as sex objects, who are the “subject of male gaze”[2]. Contemporary movies such as “Wanted”(2008) directed by Timur Bekmambetov, reflect the growth “in the presence and influence of women in media”[3] as the protagonist, Fox, is played by a notorious female actor, Angelina Jolie, who is well known for her empowering roles in action movies. Historically, action movies were recognized as being male dominated, however “as times have changed so have women’s role in society”[4] resulting in the types of roles they play in movies.

In the past women playing lead roles in movies were rare, however since “movie producers have realised that kick ass heroine do better business”[5] we see more women in action movies. The “dominance of the male hero in this genre was challenged by Sigourney Weaver’s Ripley in ‘Alien’ (Scott, 1979), followed by Linda Hamilton’s Sarah Connor in ‘The Terminator’ in 1984 and Angelina Jolie in ‘Lara Croft: Tomb Raider’”[6]. Now it is being challenged by Angelina Jolie’s Fox in ‘Wanted’. ‘Wanted’ is an action-fantasy. It follows conventions of both as the fast cars, explosions, and guns clearly connote action; whereas an ordinary guy turning into the number one assassin clearly conveys fantasy. Bekmambetov reverses Propp’s narrative theory[7] of the hero rescuing the ‘damsel in distress’, as Fox rescues the male character (Wesley) in the opening of the movie. This shows the woman is in control opposed to the man. Recently, there has been an “emergence of the tough female heroine as a popular media icon [which] is simultaneously celebrated”[8]. This is reflected in ‘Wanted’. From the beginning Fox is represented as a “fighting female”[9] who takes control of the situation. When Fox rescues Wesley from being killed, she is the one who is in the driving seat of the car, which represents women as the stronger sex. However the gun and the gear stick can be seen as a ‘phallic symbol’, which then connotes women must make up for what they have not got (a penis) in order to be powerful, which suggests men are truly the stronger sex.

The Freudian theory suggests “men unconsciously see women as castrated and this causes them to feel anxiety which is why fetishization objects are used in order to reduce anxiety.”[10] So the reason for having a phallic symbol is so men do not feel threatened. In every action movie where the female is the protagonist, this is clearly evident, as there is the need for a phallic symbol, usually a gun, which is also typical iconography for action genre. One examples is “Lara Croft: Tomb Raider”, the leading female, Lara (played by Angelina Jolie) must sleep with a knife. The knife can be seen as a phallic symbol, put there by the male director to stop “castration anxiety”[11] in order to stop losing “power or control”[12]. In addition the knife also symbolises Lara’s power, as she is one step ahead of men, which is shown in medium shot of when a male attacker tries to sneak up on her during her sleep and of course she is prepared with her knife.

Traditionally it is not known for the female to “lead the story…make the central decisions…save her male collegue [or be] the star of the film”[13], this is clearly not the case in nowadays as females are continuously being represented as strong, in control, powerful and smarter then men in action movies. ‘Wanted’ not only shows Fox’s strength through the use of phallic symbols, as Fox has “pin skinny arms, [and yet makes] beating up a guy look so easy and yeah, man, like fun”[14]. This challenges stereotypes and shows women are just as capable of being as physically powerful as men; which is evident through out the movie. For example, during the scene when Fox rescues Wesley, he begs her to “drive faster”[15], which connotes she is the dominant one who is in control of the situation, the fact he begs her, further connotes he needs her to survive. Female viewers who lack confidence may also feel empowered and believe they can do any thing if they put their mind to it, as they are seeing it is possible on screen. It also emphasises men are losing control as women are “increasingly [becoming] assertive, successful and triumphing in all roles, men are said to be anxious and confused about what their role is today”[16], in other words “crisis in masculinity”. This basically means, because women are becoming independent and providing for themselves, men may be feeling they are being “undermined or devalued”[17] leading to them feeling unneeded in society.

However due to this ‘crisis’ movies have been made which show the backlash of powerful women since feminism. One early example of a backlash movie is “Fatal Attraction” (1987), where Glenn Close plays Alex Forrest, who has an affair with a married man. She is represented as seductive, beautiful and a woman who has power within her job, but because of this she is also represented as a “femme fatale”[18]. This is shown as she begins to stalk the married man after he ended it with her; the stalking gradually becomes more dangerous as the movie progresses. It can be argued from a Marxist perspective that the “dominant ideology” being promoted here is women who are successful and independent are no good and dangerous, as Alex is represented a vindictive woman. The backlash against powerful women is still evident in contemporary movies such as “Death Race” (2008), as Warden Hennessey (Joan Allen) who is the “judge, jury and prosecution”; because of this she is represented as a “femme fatale” creating a strong resentment towards her profession. Moreover her death in the end symbolises the death of women in power, emphasising women should stick to easy jobs.

Historically men were shown as “active, providing and tough individuals who drive the narrative forward, where as [women were] passive, home orientated and emotional”[19]. Miles (1975) found “action adventure shows only 15% of the leading characters were women”[20] This all changed when “the second wave [of] feminism”[21] took place and there was a “presence in society for equality”[22] and “personal became political”, the zeitgeist of this era is reflected in the action sci-fi film “Alien” (1979), even though the movie itself is set in the future. ‘Alien’ was one of the first action movies to have an active empowered female lead role, which was played by Sigourney Weaver (Ripley) who is a “resourceful, self-reliant, hard-assed, feminist action heroine”[23]. Although the director (Ridley Scott) “never intended [to have the lead role] played by a female”[24], nonetheless it was a huge success and made “$1,983,690”[25], in fact it was so successful they three more sequels. Ellen Ripley is seen as an action hero like Fox in ‘Wanted’, through out the movie Ripley thrives to gain control, which reflects the fact women were trying to gain equality during the 70’s and 80’s. In the beginning Ripley is repressed by the male character Ash who abruptly tells her “there’s no point”[26] of her trying to help as she can not do anything, towards the end she gains independence and control. This is shown when she physically grabs and throws Ash about the room, showing she is physically stronger, which connotes women will gain control in society no matter what men want. This is emphasised in the end as she is the last one standing and alive, which connotes women’s independence was starting to come alive during that period. The character Ripley is similar to Fox in ‘Wanted’ as both of them are represented as “ass-kicking females”[27]. However throughout both movies there are more men in the scenes, reflecting the society is still very patriarchal, and emphasises the fact that action movies are a “typically male dominant genre”.[28]

Davis (1990) found women leading characters “doubled to 29%”[29]; this is clearly evident as women now “perform the role of the action hero” in movies, thanks to movies such as ‘Alien’ and ‘Kill Bill’. The influence of female actors such as Angelina Jolie, Lucy Lui, Uma Thurman, Keira Knightley and Sigourney Weaver has made it possible for the female audience to have an empowered and strong women role models. Also the rise of female actors playing lead roles in action movies shows the change in society accepting women as independent role models as the success of all these movies show it. For example Uma Thurman’s role as the Bride in “Kill Bill: Vol 1” (2003) was proven to be a success as it had a “turnover of £333425”[30], “Charlie’s Angels” (2000) was so successful another two were produced, “Lara Croft: Tomb Raider” was successful “Lara Croft: Cradle to the Grave” was produced. Furthermore all the female protagonists in action movies are active and in charge of their actions. For example in the movie ‘Kill Bill: Vol 1’ described as “brutally bloody and thrillingly callous from first to last”[31] Uma Thurman plays The Bride, her costume does not involve heavy make up, revealing clothing or even long glossy hair, in fact “it's all bang, bang; no kiss, kiss”[32]. As the movie is more revolved around how physically powerful she is and not how pretty she looks, shows action movies are taking women more seriously, and not just seeing them as sex objects. Also the character is enigmatic, making her unpredictable, which connotes women are not banal and can adapt to any situation. Furthermore the fact The Bride has blonde hair and is not represented as a ‘blonde bimbo’[33], someone who is unintelligent and promiscuous simply because they have blonde hair, instead the film is subverting the stereotype of blonde women being passive and ‘dumb’, and promoting the fact women are just as capable and intelligent as men.

Although these movies represent women as intelligent, independent and active with in today’s society, it is evident in movies such as ‘Wanted’ and ‘Domino’, the female protagonist has something within her costume which symbolises she is manly. This raises the question can women actually be powerful while being more feminine then masculine? In ‘Wanted’ Fox has various tattoos all over her body, which is more known to be a masculine characteristic, and with them she is more dominant. In ‘Domino’ Domino Harvey (Kiera Knightley) has very short hair. Long hair connotes femininity and youth, the fact it has been taken away from her makes her more masculine and mature, connoting this will make her more powerful, which suggests a woman must be manlier in order to truly be powerful. Furthermore it is clear women won’t get the same equality as men as women will always get paid less, even when they are playing the lead role in Hollywood blockbusters. “Male actors range from 1-20 million [where as] women’s range from 1-15 million”[34], in addition “George Clooney or Tom Cruise can recive up to $25 million per film [but] Juliea Robert recieves $20 million”[35] , this clearly shows men get paid more, which emphasises the inequality within society, and reinforces women will always be subordinate to men.

Gaye Tuchman (1978) argues “when females have roles, they are mostly shown as being negative roles,”[36] and under represented, resulting in them being “symbolically annihilated”.[37] This is reinforced in some scenes and at the end of ‘Wanted’. It is reinforced at the end as Fox is not the last one standing (like Ripley is in ‘Alien’), Wesley is, which connotes at the end of the day it is men who can survive through anything. In the beginning Wesley is represented as pathetic, weak and a nobody his girlfriend is “screwing” his best friend, he’s stuck in a dead end job, has no hope of being successful. A close up of him typing his name in the Google search engine, reveals “no result”, showing he is not known. after there is a long shot of him standing in the middle of office blocks, as he puts on his jacket it is in slow motion, and around him everyone is moving fast, which connotes he is alone and as the world is moving around him and he is isolated. The fact he is nobody is further emphasised when he is walking home and there’s non diegetic music with words saying “I think I used to have a purpose “, again showing he has no use in society. This is all changed when he meets Fox, his life turns around. The fact a women is changing a man’s life shows she is influential. However towards the end this all changes as Wesley become more powerful. In the end scenes there is a long shot of Wesley jumping through the window, connoting he is invincible, which is further emphasised when he gets shot in the arm and knifed but still manages to carry on fighting and wining.The butcher taunts him by calling him a “pussy”, showing the misogynistic views of women, the fact Wesley gets more aggressive because of this remark connoting he does not like being on a women’s level when it comes to fighting as men are better fighters and physically more powerful. Furthermore he holding two guns, the fact the gun represents power and he is holding two, connotes he is more powerful, reinforcing men are more dominant. Typically it would be a woman who is changing to be accepted in society, in ‘Wanted’ it the man who is the "Sad suck guy is told that to be a man he has to drive a fast car, shoot people, and have an f-off attitude”[38], this shows it is now men who want to fit in society and impress the female.

“Film is such a male dominated industry,”[39] as there is a higher number of male directors than women. This is clearly true as all the female protagonists in action movies are in some way or another represented as sex objects, who are purely there for the male “visual pleasure” [40] according to Mulvey. This is manifested in ‘Wanted’ as the movie contains a scene where Fox comes out of a bath naked; a long shot exposes her back from head to toe. While she is coming out Wesley and another male stare, the fact that Fox knows they are watching connotes she is promiscuous. This scene conforms to the fact action movies must have an “erotic exhibition of women’s bodies on the screen”[41], and can never empower women with out it. Throughout the movie “her job is to cock triggers and look scrumptious"[42], this emphasises women are only there for show, and will never be taken seriously in the action genre. However in ‘Domino’, Domino uses her physical attractiveness and body to her advantage. This is when she is surrounded by men, connoting a patriarchal society, who want to kill her. She gives them a lap dance, however only to get what she wants, this connotes women are becoming smarter than men, as men will fall for anything.

In ‘Wanted’, although Fox is represented an action hero, she is still represented as an object for the ‘male gaze’. This is illustrated in the scene where she is naked while coming out of the bath; it is also evident in the opening scene. While Fox is rescuing the victim Wesley, there is a close up of her legs, then a medium close up of Wesley looking, this shows even when a man is scared to death of dying, he still treats the women who is rescuing as a sex object. This also conforms to Mulvey’s theory of ‘looking’ is only for the males, in the movie or out in the audience. ‘Male gaze’ is also evident in other action movies such as ‘Charlie’s Angels’ (2000). The ‘Angels’ may be represented as ‘kick ass’ heroines, but they are still subordinate to men. “The film is the equivalent of the 'dumb blonde' of action movies”[43], as Natalie (Cameron Diaz), Dylan (Drew Barrymore) and Alex (Lucy Liu) must only do what Charlie tells them to do, which shows the man is more intellectual the woman, reflecting a patriarchal society where men are “dominant and rule.”[44]

It is argued by theorists such as Sharon Smith (1972) “the role of a woman in a film almost always revolves around her physical appearance”[45], although action movies are presenting women as ruthless and tough individuals, what theorists such as Smith and Mulvey argue are true. Sarah Grinke argues “men and women are created equal and that women should be allowed the same liberties as men”[46], unfortunately in today’s action movies they are clearly represented differently, as women are looked at as objects. In ‘Wanted’ although the main female character is empowered, other women in the movie are not. For example Wesley’s girlfriend is represented as a “slut” who’s “fuckin his best friend”[47], one scene shows her having sexual intercourse with him, which shows action movies must contain at least one scene for “male gaze”. However in ‘Domino’, Domino uses her physical attractiveness and body to her advantage. This is when she is surrounded by men, connoting a patriarchal society, who want to kill her. She gives them a lap dance, however only to get what she wants, this connotes women are becoming smarter than men, as men will fall for anything.

It’s argued by Marxists such as Gramsci that these male directors (the ruling class) are injecting their dominant ideologies into the audience, which is women are inferior to men, which becomes ‘common sense’ to viewers that men are the dominant sex. However Marxist theory is outdated, and as times have changed so have the audience, as Marxists assume all audiences are passive when in actual fact audiences have become active. Theories such as the Reception theory, argues women may take an “oppositional reading”, and instead of remaining repressed by men, and not conform to the ideologies that are fed to them. In addition it is argued by theorists such as Kaplan and Kaja Silverman (1980), that “the gaze could be adopted by both male and female subjects: the male gaze is not always controlling the subject and nor is the female always a passive object”[48] meaning the female knows what she is doing, furthermore the female audience may aspire to be like the women in action movies. However it can be argued from a Marxist perspective women aspire to be like those women because, as they feel they must “impress [men] with their make-up and high heels”[49], as Greer (1999) suggested women are more under pressure to do so, as it has been embedded in their mind over and over again through the media. The “hypodermic needle theory is reinforced”[50] here as women are passive as they accept that they need to “impress” the opposite sex, or she will see herself as a “failure if she is not beautiful”[51].

In addition action movies promote misogynistic views of women. In ‘Wanted’ Wesley’s boss who is female is called degrading terms such as “pussy”, this implies the director is guilty of having “misogynistic views upon women” [52](Haskell 1973). Throughout the movie other misogynistic terms for example in the voice over Wesley say “you wish you weren’t such a pussy”, he is suggesting to be recognised as someone who is strong and dominant you can’t be a “pussy”. In other words acting like a woman, won’t empower you, which reflects the patriarchal society which we are still living in, it also exposes Bekmambetov misogynistic views. ‘Wanted’ is not the only movie to encourage misogynistic views, earlier movies such as “Basic Instinct” (Paul Verhoeven 1992), illustrates how directors are guilty of feeding their misogynistic views to the audience. This is manifested when Gus (George Dzundez) calls Catherine (Sharon Stone) a “bitch” and a “pussy”. This reflects the lack of respect men have for women as they see them as second class citizens. Again it can be argued from a Marxist perspective, these ideologies are reinforced throughout these movies directed by males in order to keep women in their place, which is subordinate to men.

In conclusion, women are becoming noticed as being active within society, as feminism helped break down barriers blocking women’s path of success, it is unfortunately still evident women will always be “looked at, objectified and sexualized by the male protagonist”[53] in the movie and by males in the audience. Although it is shown in contemporary texts such as ‘Wanted’ that women are becoming intellectually and physically stronger, there as still parts which degrade and put women down. This is the same for other texts such as ‘Charlie’s Angel’s’ and ‘Lara Croft: Tomb Raider’ who are represented as ‘ass-kicking’ but, also as sex objects. Why directors continuously use women action heroes can either be because “Sex attracts – always has, probably always will”[54], or, they have realised empowered women make better movies as this is what the audience want to see.
Websites
- http://www.answers.com/topic/castration-complex
Answers.com, defining what castration anxiety is.
- http://www.empireonline.com/reviews/review.asp?DVDID=9572
‘Charlie’s Angels: The Full Throttle’, plot summary.
- http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_annihilation
Outline on what symbolic annihilation is.
- http://www.filmsite.org/alie.html
Review of ‘Alien’ (1979) by Tim Dirks, it also gives brief outline of other ‘Alien’ movies.
- http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/03855141912_0638000.html
Article by Harris Naomie about how film is a male dominant industry
- http://www.helium.com/items/125634-women-in-action-movies-empowered-role-models-or-chicks-with-guns
Article titled ‘Women in action movies: Empowered role models or chicks with guns’. By Charlotte Starlet
- http://www.living.scotsman.com/movies?articleid=4208635
Film review of ‘Wanted’ (2008), by Siobhan Synnot
- http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/stereotyping/wome_and_girls
Looks at how the media are noticing the rise of women in the media
- http://www.beyondhollywood.com/wanted-2008-movie-review/
Beyond Hollywood, ‘Wanted’ review written by Bodhi Grrl
- http://www.movieviews.org/reviews/may-july2003.shtml
The way women are represented in action films when they are the protagonist
- http://www.movies.yahoo.com/movie/1800020133/detalis
Reviews about ‘Kill Bill: Vol 1’
-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Propp
Outlying Vladimir Propp’s theory on hero vs. villain
-http://www.cnplus.co.uk/hot-topics/legal/kill-bill-could-be-blunted-by-economy/5201182.article
How much profit ‘Kill Bill’ made
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud
Freud’s theory











Moving Image Texts
- ‘Alien’ (1979) Directed by Ridley Scott
- “Basic Instinct” (1992) Directed by Paul Verhoeven
- ‘Charlie’s Angels’ (2000) Directed by McG
- ‘Charlie’s Angels: The Full Throttle’ (2003) Directed by McG
- ‘Death Race’ (2008) Directed by Paul WS Anderson
-‘Domino’ (2005) directed by Tony Scott
- ‘Fatal Attraction’ (1987) Directed by Adrian Lyne
- ‘Lara Croft: Tomb Raider’ (2001) Directed by Simon West
- ‘Kill Bill: Vol 1’ (2003) Directed by Quentin Tarantino
-‘Wanted’ (2008) Directed by Timur Bekmambetov


Work Consulted

Websites
- http://community.channel4.com/eve/forums/a/tpc/f/8606038721/m/1980067829
Channel 4 forums, talking about women in action movies.
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralism_(political_theory)
Outline of the Pluralist theory.
- http://imdb.com/title/tt0493464/
Outline of ‘Wanted’ the plot line, characters and director.
- http://imdb.com/title/tt0146316/
Outline of ‘Lara Croft: Tomb Raider’ the plot line, characters and director.
- http://living.scotsman.com/movies?articleid=4208635
Film Reviews of ‘Wanted’ by Siobhan Synnot
- http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1999/03/99/tom_brook/387291.stm
About Hollywood’s equal pay battle between men and women
- http://www.channel4.com/film/reviews/film.jsp?id=165408
Film 4 reviews about ‘Wanted’
- http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Marxists
Dictionary website, defining what Marxism is.

[1] Wanted (2008)
[2] Mulvey, Laura (1975) “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema”
[3] http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/stereotyping/wome_and_girls
[4] http://www.helium.com/items/125634-women-in-action-movies-empowered-role-models-or-chicks-with-guns
[5] Gauntlett (2002)
[6] Clark Vivienne, Barker James, Lewis Eileen (2003) “Key Concepts & Skills for Media Studies” pg 26
[7] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Propp
[8] http://www.english.ufl.edu/imagetext/archives/v3_1/reviews/damasco.shtml
[9] Iness, Sherrie A. Ed. “Action Chicks: New Images of Tough Women in Popular Culture” New York: Palgrare Macmillan (2004)
[10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud
[11] http://www.empireonline.com/reviews/review.asp?DVDID=9572
[12] http://www.answers.com/topic/castration-complex
[13] Gauntlett David: “Media, Gender and Identity” (pg47)
[14] http://www.movies.nytimes.com/2008/06/27/movies/27want.html -by Manohla Dargo
[15] ‘Wanted’ (2008)
[16] Gauntlett, David (2002) “Media, Gender and Identity”
[17] Tim Edward “Cultures of masculinity” pg 18
[18] http://www.poem.co.uk/femmefatale.html
[19] Bennett, Peter (2006) “A2 Media Studies: The Essential Introduction” pg 277
[20] B. Miles (1990) “Challenging Children: Sex Stereotyping as Prime T.V” pg43
[21] Bennett, Peter (2006) “A2 Media Studies: The Essential Introduction” pg 229
[22] Bennett, Jacquie (2005) “Media Studies AS & A2”
[23] http://www.filmsite.org/alie.html
[24] Lacey, Nick “Image and Representation” pg 218
[25] http://www.movies.yahoo.com/movie/1800020133/detalis
[26] ‘Alien’ (1979)
[27] http://www.movieviews.org/reviews/may-july2003.shtml
[28] http://www.helium.com/items/125634-women-in-action-movies-empowered-role-models-or-chicks-with-guns
[29] Davis, D.M (1990) “Portrayals of Women in Prime Time Network Television” pg43
[30] http://www.cnplus.co.uk/hot-topics/legal/kill-bill-could-be-blunted-by-economy/5201182.article
[31] http://www.uk.rottentomatoes.com/m/kill_bill_vol_1/
[32] http://www.uk.rottentomatoes.com/m/kill_bill_vol_1/
[33] Sardar, Ziauddin and Van Loon, Borin, ‘Introducing Media Studies”
[34] http://www.wiki.answers.com/how_much_do_hollywood_actors_get_paid
[35] Tim O’Sullivan “Studying the Media, An Introduction, Third Edition”
[36] http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_annihilation
[37]Tuchman G, 1978, ‘The symbolic annihilation of women in the mass media’
[38] http://movies.nytimes.com/2008/06/27/movies/27want.html
[39] Harris Naomie http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/03855141912_0638000.html
[40] Mulvey, Laura (1975) “Visual pleasure and Narrative Cinema”
[41]Bennett, Peter (2006) “A2 Media Studies: The Essential Introduction”
[42] http://www.living.scotsman.com/movies?articleid=4208635
[43] http://www.uk.rottentomatoes.com/m/charlies_angels/
[44] Bennett , Jacquie (2005) “Media Studies AS & A2” pg 108
[45] Gauntlett, David (2002) “Media, Gender & Identity” pg48
[46]Jenainati Catha, Groves Jude, (2007) “Introducing Feminism”
[47] ‘Wanted’ (2008)
[48] Lbid
[49] Gauntlett, David (2002) “Media, Gender and Identity” pg 78
[50] Bennett, Jacquie(2005) “Media Studies: AS & A2” pg 86
[51] Greer G, (1999), ‘The whole woman’, London: Doubleday
[52]Nelmes, Jill (1996) “An Introduction to Film Studies – Third Edition” pg 248
[53] Mulvey, Laura (1975)
[54] http://www.mybusiness.co.uk/YYLO1iFotKRAKg.html

Word count: 3,300

By Avneet Banwaitt























Bibliography
Work Cited
Books
-Baker, James, Vivienne Clark, and Eileen Lewis. Key Concepts & Skills for Media Studies (Hodder Arnold Publication). London: A Hodder Arnold Publication, 2002.

-Bennett, Jacquie. Revision Express Media Studies (A Level Revise Guides). New York: Longman, 2005.

-Bennett, Peter, Jerry Slater, and Peter Wall. "A2 Media Studies: The Essentail Introduction".: Routlege , 2005.

-Betty, Miles . Channeling Children: Sex Stereotyping in Prime-Time TV. n/a: Princeton: Women on Words and Images, 1975.

-Donald, Davis. Portrayals of women in prime-time network television: Some demographic characteristics . The University of Georgia, USA: Springer Netherlands, 2004.

-Dutton, Brian, Tim O'Sullivan, and Philip Rayner. Studying the Media: An Introduction (Hodder Arnold Publication). London: A Hodder Arnold Publication, 2003.

-Edwards, Tim. Cultures of Masculinity. New York: Routledge, 2006.

-Gauntlett, D.. Media, Gender and Identity: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2002.

-Greer, Germaine. The Whole Woman. New York: Anchor, 2000.

-Jenainati, Cathia. Introducing Feminism (Introducing...). Thriplow, Cambridge, UK: Totem Books, 2007.

-Lacey, Nick. Image & Representation: Key Concepts in Media Studies. New York: St. Martin's, 1998.

-Mulvey, Laura. Visual and Other Pleasures (Language, Discourse, Society). New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.

-Nelmes, Jill Ed.. Introduction to Film Studies. London: Routledge, Independence, Kentucky, U.S.A., 1996

-Tuchman, G. The symbolic annihilation of women by the mass media. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.

-Sherrie A. Inness Action Chicks: New Images of Tough Women in Popular Culture. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.

Time Line

1950’s

- The war, which lasted from June 25, 1950 until a cease-fire on July 27, 1953, started as a civil war between communist North Korea and the Republic of South Korea
- During this time, racial segregation was still enacted in the USA and other countries, although the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s would soon start brewing. Key figures like Martin Luther King, Malcolm X and Rosa Parks highlighted and challenged those who were against equal rights and freedoms for black Americans.
- Juvenile delinquency was said to be at epidemic proportions in the United States, although by modern standards the crime rate was low.
- Sales of television sets boomed in the '50s
- Automobiles changed considerably over the course of the 1950s
- The Suez Crisis was a war fought on Egyptian territory in 1956. Following the nationalisation of the Suez Canal in 1956 by Gamal Abdel Nasser, the United Kingdom, France and Israel subsequently invaded. The operation was a military success


1960’s

- The Sixties, denoting the complex of inter-related cultural and political trends in the west, particularly United States, Britain, France, Canada, Brazil, Australia, Spain, Italy, and West Germany. Social and political upheaval was not limited to these countries, but included such nations as Japan, Mexico, and others.
- The 1960s have become synonymous with all the new, exciting, radical, and subversive events and trends
- The rapid rise of a "New Left" applied the class perspective of Marxism to postwar America, but had little organizational connection with older Marxist organizations such as the Communist Party, and even went as far as to reject organized labor as the basis of a unified left-wing movement. The New Left differed from the traditional left in its resistance to dogma and its emphasis on personal as well as societal change.
- The 1960s has also been associated with a large increase in crime and urban unrest of all types
- The Soviet Union and the United States were involved in the space race. This led to an increase in spending on science and technology during this period.


1970’s

- The hippie culture, which started in the 1960s, continued in the early 1970s and faded towards the middle part of the decade, which involved opposition to the Vietnam War, opposition to nuclear weapons, the advocacy of world peace, and hostility to the authority of government and big business.
- The environmentalist movement began to increase dramatically in this period. Western countries experienced an economic recession due to oil crisis caused by oil embargoes by Arab countries in the Middle East, while Japan's economy boomed
- The 1970s emerged from a transition of the global social structure from the decline of colonial imperialism since the end of World War II to globalization and the rise of a new middle class in the developing world.
- Globally, the 1970s had several features that were similar and definitive across economic levels and regions

1980’s

- The decade saw social, economic and general upheaval as wealth, production and western culture migrated to new industrializing economies
- The role of women in the workplace increased greatly. Continuing the 1970s' trend, more and more women in the English-speaking world took to calling themselves "Ms.", rather than "Mrs." or "Miss." A similar change occurred in Germany, with women choosing "Frau" instead of "Fräulein" in an effort to disassociate marital status from title.
- Rejection of smoking based on health concerns increases throughout the western world.
- Western European countries adopted "greener" policies to cut back on oil use, recycle most of their nations' waste, and increase focus on water and energy conservation efforts. Similar "Eco-activist" trends appeared in the U.S. in the late 1980s.

1990’s

- This decade started with the fall of the Soviet Union and the fighting of the Gulf War in Iraq and Kuwait, as well as the cementation of free market capitalism in many countries worldwide, both developed and developing.
- gender roles for women changed dramatically in many industrialized countries as women assumed leadership and gained power in politics, business, and other aspects of life.
- Explosive growth of the Internet, perhaps caused by a decrease in the cost of computers and other related technology.
- 3-D graphics become the standard by end of decade
- Politically, the 1990s was an era of spreading democracy
- It was a time of peace in terror-ridden Northern Ireland when the IRA agreed to a truce in 1994. This marked the beginning of the end of 25 years of violence between the two sectarian groups, Protestant and Catholic, and the start of political negotiations.


2000’s

- Popular culture also holds the year 2000 as the first year of the 21st century and the third millennium.
- The year 2000 was the target of Y2K concerns, fearing computers could not shift from 2-digit "99" to "2000"; however, many companies had already converted their software, even obtaining Y2K certification, and relatively few problems occurred.